Although extensive air attacks have been carried out to destroy most of Iran's defence capabilities, the latter's resilience and sustenance during the war clearly indicate that the US landing force would encounter severe resistance in the operation, explains Commodore Venugopal Vengalil (retd).
The world media is abuzz with speculations of an amphibious/airborne assault to land US marines/troops in Iran to secure vital assets.
Strategic posturing/messaging by positioning the America class Tripoli Amphibious Readiness Group (USS Tripoli with destroyer escorts and the 31st Marine Expeditionary Group embarked) has led to the speculation.
This force comprising of roughly 3,500 sailors and marines have arrived in the 'area of responsibility' along with its complement of fighter aircraft and additional amphibious and tactical resources.
Key Points
- US deploying amphibious and airborne forces near Iran has triggered speculation of possible ground assault operations.
- Amphibious and airborne assaults require complex coordination, involving naval, air and ground forces for rapid deployment.
- Key targets likely include strategic islands, oil infrastructure, and Iran's enriched uranium stockpiles deep underground.
- Iran's strong defences, geography, and control over Hormuz significantly increase risks for any US landing operation.
- Sustaining troops post-landing, ensuring logistics, and planning exit strategy remain major operational challenges for US forces.
US Troop Build-Up Near Iran
In addition, the US 82nd airborne division with about 4,000-5,000 personnel which includes highly specialized elements like the Delta Force/US navy Seals could also join the area of operations in West Asia.
The division comprises of two parachute infantry brigades, one air assault brigade, one aviation brigade and an airborne field artillery regiment.
The 82nd airborne division serves as the US Army's rapid response force and is among the first units sent to respond to an emergency crisis.
There are also reports which suggest that Pentagon is preparing for specialised ground operations including raids in Iran involving the Delta Force/US navy Seals.
Potential mission of these specialised troops includes seizing oil facilities/ infrastructure and enriched uranium stockpiles.
Amphibious vs Airborne Assault Explained
Types of Landing Operations
Amphibious Assault
It is a specialised military operation launching land forces from naval ships onto hostile shores to seize terrain, vital assets or establish bases to initiate further combat.
It requires complex coordination of ships, aircraft and armored vehicles to transport marines, sailors and equipment from sea to the objective.
In the case of the Tripoli Amphibious Readiness Group, troops would be transported by helicopters, MV 22 B Ospreys and F 35 jets.
Marines would use landing craft (LCAC: Landing Craft Air Cushion) and armored vehicles (ACV: Amphibious Combat Vehicle) to transfer from sea to land.
Airborne Assault
Airborne assault is the tactical movement of ground forces by vertical take off aircraft/helicopters to seize key terrain and conduct rapid insertion.
In the Iran context the 82nd airborne division is specialised in parachute assault. The specialty of this division is that they can deploy in any part of the world within 18 hours.
Amphibious Raid
An amphibious raid is a swift, specialised military operation launched from the sea to strike a specific, temporary objective on hostile shores followed by a planned withdrawal.
These raids focus on destroying enemy infrastructure, capturing high value targets and assets.
The primary goal is to destroy vital targets. Marines or special forces conduct these operations, and they are inserted covertly to ensure speed and stealth.
The operation concludes with a planned exfiltration after the objective is secured.
Five Phases of Amphibious Operations (PERMA)
Planning: The central phase which develops detailed plans -- landing plans, fire support, logistics in consultation with naval, air and ground forces.
Embarkation: Loading of landing force and equipment in a pre-determined sequence to ensure efficient unloading and rapid deployment.
Rehearsal: Conduct of practices of the operational plan and test communications.
Movement: Transportation of forces to the objective area and preparatory operations like Mine sweeping and reconnaissance.
Action: The assault phase involves the landing, seizing of initial beach head and conducting combat operations to achieve the mission objectives.
Successful Amphibious Landings
A brief look at history reveals the successful amphibious landings in various war theatres.
Operation Overlord (June 6, 1944): The largest amphibious invasion in history, where the Allied forces stormed five beaches in Normandy, France to begin the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi control.
Operation Chromite/Inchon landing (1950): General Douglas MacArthur led UN forces carried out a daring landing behind North Korean lines, that turned the tide of the Korean War.
Battle of Guadalcanal (1942): The first major American amphibious offensive of World War II against Japanese forces which marked a shift to allied momentum in the Pacific.
Operation Iceberg (1945): The last major amphibious assault of World War II which secured vital islands close to the Japanese mainland.
Failed Amphibious Landings
Failed amphibious landings result from poor planning, underestimating enemy defenses, logistics failures, inadequate fire support leading to heavy casualties or forced retreats. Some of the historical examples of failed landings are highlighted below.
Gallipoli Campaign (1915): A major World War I Allied operation against the Ottoman empire that failed due to rugged terrain, strong defences and stalled leadership resulting in a prolonged stalemate and eventual evacuation.
Battle of Wake Island (1941): Japanese forces were repulsed by US marines and forced to withdraw, suffering huge casualties.
Anzio Landings (1944): Although the landing was successful, the operation failed to achieve its objectives with severe human losses.
Mandatory requirements for the success of Amphibious operations
Logistical Support: Successful landings establish secure beach head (base) allowing for the continuous inflow of troops, armor and supplies necessary for ongoing operations and sustain them to achieve objectives.
Sea and Air Superiority: Control of the maritime and air environment in the operational area is essential to protect amphibious landing from enemy attack.
Rapid Buildup of Power: An essential requirement to facilitate the swift, uninterrupted movement of adequate combat power from sea to land
Integrated Command & Control: Success depends on the close cooperation and coordination between the naval task force and the landing force under an effective command and control umbrella
Detailed Planning & Intelligence: Amphibious operations require extensive intelligence gathering and planning, to identify the enemy's centre of gravity and vulnerabilities.
Combat Mobility and Flexibility: All elements of the operations must be able to fight from the sea, land and air to counter enemy strength and seize key objectives.
Accurate weather data: Accurate meteorological and hydrographic intelligence is critical for successful operations.
Specialised Training & Equipment: Both elements are critical to the success of the operation.
Psychological Impact: A successful, unexpected or large-scale landing can devastate enemy morale and create chaotic disruption in their strategic planning.
Key Iran Targets Identified
Likely targets for an amphibious/airborne assault on Iran
The focus would be on securing and destroying maritime logistics and infrastructure in Iran.
Considering the geography of the region and the location of assets, it is likely that the US military may target the following assets.
Kharg Island: This is a key target as the location is main oil export hub of Iran.
Seizing or blockading this vital site could deliver a potential final blow and could also cause a severe economic setback.
The island lies 25 km off the coast of Iran and 660 km northwest of the Strait of Hormuz.
The sea port exports up to 90% of Iran's oil and has a storage capacity of up to 30 Mn barrels of oil.
Kharg Island is a coral outcrop, and the water around it is deep. Hence an amphibious landing on this island is unlikely and instead an airborne assault could be an option.
This island is heavily guarded by the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC).
Hormuz Islands Strategic Importance
Larak Island: It is a strategic location near the Strait of Hormuz that aids Iranian control of the waterway. This island is located off the coast of Bandar Abbas.
The waters around the island are covered with coral reefs and hence not favoUrable for amphibious operations.
The method of insertion is likely to be by airborne assault.
Qeshm Island: It is separated from the Iran mainland by the Clarence Strait and is the largest island in the Persian Gulf.
This island is a crucial military hub and acts as the gatekeeper for over 20% of the world's oil traffic housing underground missile facilities, air defence and coastal defence systems.
The waters around the island are shallow (0 to 10 metres) with mangrove creeks. An amphibious landing at this island is a distinct possibility.
Abu Musa island: This island is located near the entrance to the Strait of Hormuz and is of strategic significance. It exercises radar coverage and command over maritime traffic through the strait.
The IRGC has established a command, control and intelligence gathering hub. It is well defended with air defence systems and missile batteries.
Due to its role in controlling maritime access, the island is a prime target to limit Iran's capacity to block the strait of Hormuz.
Challenges Facing US Military Plan
Enriched uranium possessed by Iran
Seizure of enriched uranium is also likely to be a key objective of the US.
The stockpile of uranium is believed to be primarily stored deep underground, heavily fortified tunnels at the Ishafan nuclear complex, Natanz facility and at a new site known as Pickaxe Mountain following the extensive damage suffered to the two main sites.
The best option available with the US would be to deploy the Delta Force/Seals for an amphibious raid to seize the stockpile and exfiltrate in shortest possible time.
Challenges faced by the US in an amphibious/airborne assault on Iranian islands
• At the outset, the US military underestimated the defensive capability of the Iranian forces and hence their strategic aims/objectives seem to be reactive/ambiguous as the operation progressed.
It was least expected that Iran would exercise control of the Strait of Hormuz and attack commercial ships.
Hence the plan to land ground troops is an afterthought which may also mean that their landing force is underprepared and the command teams ill-prepared for the operation.
• It is important to note that the odds would always be in favour of a formidable defence force. Iran has proved undoubtedly during the campaign that their operations are based on a well-conceived strategy.
• Dominance in the sea and air is mandatory for the success of any landing operations.
Although extensive air attacks have been carried out to destroy most of Iran's defence capabilities, the latter's resilience and sustenance during the war clearly indicate that the US landing force would encounter severe resistance in the operation.
• Even if the US succeeds in landing troops on land, their safety, sustenance and logistics support would be a major challenge.
It needs no emphasis that longer the landing forces are on the land, greater the chances of their exposure would be and subsequently would result in increased casualties.
Hence it is critical for the US to define a clear end game to facilitate the extraction of the landing force after the objectives are achieved.
• Since the landing of airborne assault troops is undertaken by aircraft/helicopters, they would be vulnerable from enemy fire and would be easy targets due to their slow speeds for the operation.
Conclusion
An amphibious/airborne assault/raid is the most complex of maritime operation.
It is crucial that the operation is well planned, coordinated and conducted to achieve the objectives.
Speed and stealth are critical to the success of any amphibious operation.
Real time intelligence on the vulnerabilities of each target, strength and preparedness of the defending force, extent of political will for acceptance of casualties, the desired end state and a well-defined exit strategy would decide the nature of this operation.
Needless to state that this operation would be extremely dangerous as the odds are not in favor of the landing force.
Photographs curated by Manisha Kotian/Rediff
Feature Presentation: Ashish Narsale/Rediff
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