Skimping on state-of-the-art emissions technology between 2009 and 2014 probably saved VW a measly 4.3 billion euros, less than it has so far set aside to meet recall costs.
VW kept set aside 6.5 billion euros just to cover the potential costs of recalling and fixing the affected cars.
It isn't yet clear whether Martin Winterkorn knew about the "defeat devices" in certain U.S. cars, notes Olaf Storbeck.
Volkswagen can pay $18 billion, over time, and retain its credit rating.